Nepal has adjusted its development path according to the changing needs of the economy and the international market. The country is focused on a few key areas:
Functioning of Government: Nepal’s transition to a federal structure is a major change in governance. The aim is to distribute power to local governments to promote inclusive development and address regional inequality.
Sustainable and inclusive development: People are paying more attention to sustainable development that balances economic and environmental protection. The importance of participation is to ensure that disadvantaged communities, including women, minorities and those living in rural areas, participate in and benefit from road measures.
Hydropower and Energy Development: Nepal’s abundant water resources have potential for economic growth. The country is exploring ways to use hydroelectric energy for domestic use and export in order to solve the electricity shortage and increase income.
Tourism and Heritage: Nepal’s rich heritage and natural beauty are important for development. Efforts to promote tourism and preserve cultural heritage in order to stimulate economic growth and create employment.
Improving Infrastructure: Improving infrastructure, including transport, electricity and communications, is also important to support trade and connectivity across countries and regions.
Social Welfare Program: Measures aimed at education, health, poverty reduction and social inclusion with the aim of improving disadvantaged communities and establishing the development index of all people.
It is worth noting that developments and ideas in Nepal continue to evolve under the force of domestic significance, global influences and socio-political changes. The future development of a country may have changed since then and may include new ideas, policies or practices to meet that country’s specific needs and requirements.
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नेपालको अर्थ व्यवस्थालाई परिवर्तन गर्न सकिने आधारहरु
सरकार र पार्टी मात्रै परिवर्तनले नेपाल देश विकास हुने अवस्था रहेको देखिदैन । जव सम्म प्रणाली सुधार गरिदैन नेता र पार्टीले मात्रै देशको विकास गर्न सक्दैनन् । नेपाली जनता यस भ्रममा परिरहेका देखिन्छन कि सरकार परिवर्तन वा नेता परिवर्तनले देश विकास होला‚ देश विकास निती परिवर्तनले हुन्छ भन्ने करामा सवैको ध्यान जान आवश्यक छ । राजनीतिक पार्टीले आफ्नो नीति परिवर्तन गरे अर्थव्यवस्थामा पनि परिवर्त आउँछ भन्ने बुझ्नु जरुरी छ । नेपाल जस्तो देशको अर्थ व्यवस्था सुधार गर्न राम्रो समाज र भष्ट्राचार कम गर्न अति आवश्यक देखिन्छ । पछिल्लो समय साउदी अरेविया‚ चीन‚ ब्राजिल‚ नाइजेरीया जस्ता देशहरुले कसरी देश विकास गरे वा कसरी अर्थव्यवस्थालाई परिर्वतन गरे भन्ने कुरा अनुकरणिय देखिन्छ । विकासक सुत्रहरु धेरै छन तर कुन देशले कसरी विकास गर्यो यो बुझ्न नेपाली तथा नेपालका अर्थव्यवस्था परिवर्तन गर्न चाहाने व्यक्तिहरुले सोच्नु पर्ने हुन्छ ।
जो देश संग जे छ त्यही विषयमा अध्ययन गरि अगाडी वढेमा मात्र अर्थव्यवस्था परिवर्तन गर्न सकिने हुन्छ । नेपालको अर्थव्यवस्था परिवर्तन गर्न अमेरिका‚ चीन‚ भारत‚ वा सिङ्गापुरको उदाहरण जरुरी छैन । यहाँको अर्थव्यवस्थाका लागी यहीँको भौगोलिक अवस्था‚ राजनैतिक अवस्था र स्थिरता‚ जनशक्तिको कुशलता‚ शैक्षिक स्तर लगायतका कुरामा अध्ययन गर्नुपर्ने हुन्छ ।
चीनले सुन‚ कोइला‚ फलाम‚ कच्चा प्राकृतिक ग्यास‚ तेल‚ चुनढुंगा‚ जलविद्युत‚ टिन‚ एन्टीमोनी‚ टगस्टन‚ मेसनरी‚ औजार मात्र अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय बजारमा नवेची आन्तरिक परिवर्तन पनि भरपुर रुपमा गरेको देखिन्छ । हो उसले उल्लेखित बस्तुहरु संगै अन्य वस्तुहरु वेची ठूलो धन राशी कमाएको छ‚ तर पनि त्यसका साथ-साथै राजनीतिक स्थिरता‚ फजुल खर्चमा पूर्ण रोकतोकका नियमहरु‚ घुषखोरीमा मृत्यु दण्ड जस्ता कठोर सजाय आदी चीनको अर्थ व्यवस्थालाई परिवर्तन गर्ने प्रमुख आधारहरु रहेका छन । यस्तै Qing राजबंश २० औं शताव्दीको सुरुतिर समाप्त भए पश्चात साम्यवादी शासनको स्थापना पछि सामाजिक सुधारहरु स्थापना गरेर महिलाले महिलालाई कार्यावलमा पूर्णतया सहभागी गराउने तथा सम्पति अधिकार दिए पश्चात मात्र चीनले अर्थव्यवस्थामा ठूलो छलाङ लगाएको देखिन्छ । हालको चीनको विकासको प्रथम चरण यहीँ नै मानिन्छ । विगत १०/१२ वर्षको चीनको स्थिती सम्बन्धी भनिरहनु नपर्ला ।
नेपालको अर्थव्यवस्थालाई परिवर्तन गर्न सकिने केही सामाजिक तथा राजनैतिक आधारहरु छन् । ती मध्ये केही आधारहरुलाई निम्न बुँदाहरुबाट स्पष्ट पार्न सकिन्छ ।
- नागरिक सेवाहरुको स्तरउन्नती
नेपालको नागरिक सेवाहरुको स्तरउन्नती अति आवश्यक छ । उचित छनौट प्रक्रियाहरु‚ पदोन्नती मापदण्ड‚ कार्य विभाजन‚ कार्यको जिम्मेवारी बोध‚ पहिचान कार्य यो निकै पुरानो छ । यसलाई समय सान्दर्भिक वनाउन जरुरी छ । सरकारी कार्यालयमा नागरिक जान डराउँछन्‚ बढी समय लाग्ने तथा राम्रो प्रतिक्रिया नआउने डरले आज नेपालमा मध्यस्थ कर्ता मार्फत सरकारी काम गराउन रुचाइएको छ । बाजेको पालामा बसेको संचालन प्रणाली र सेवा प्रवाह गर्ने प्रवितिले गर्दा आजका युवा सरकारी कार्यालय जान डराउछन् । जवसम्म आधुनिकीकरण र आवश्यकता अनुरुप यि नागरिक सेवाहरुमा सुधार हुदैन भने तव सम्म देशमा परिवर्तन आउदैन झन अर्थव्यवस्थामा परिवर्तन आउने त कुरै हुदैन ।
- भष्ट्रचार विरोधी स्वतन्त्र अधिकार
गरिव देशको रोग नै भष्ट्रचार हो । जवसम्म भष्ट्रचारमा राजनीति र राजनीतीमा भष्ट्रचार रहेको छ तवसम्म देशको अर्थव्यवस्थामा सुधार आउदैन । भष्ट्रचार भन्दा राजनीति टाढा हुनुपर्ने हुन्छ । राजनीतीमा भष्ट्रचार देखिएपछि देश विकास हुदैन । भष्ट्रचार विरोधी अधिकार स्वतन्त्र हुनपर्ने हुन्छ । स्वतन्त्ररुपमा भष्ट्रचार विरुद्ध काम गर्ने अधिकार प्राप्त हुन गएमा नेपालको अर्थव्यव्थामा ठूलो परिवर्तन आउने कुरामा राजनीतीज्ञ र अर्थविदहरुले नबुझेको होइन तर यसलाई फरक राख्न नसकेको अवस्था रहेको छ त्यस कारण स्वतन्त्र भष्ट्रचार अधिकार भएमा देशको अर्थव्यवस्थाले ठूलो फड्को मार्ने छ ।
- एक उत्तम न्यायपालिका
मुद्धाहरु अदालतमा संधै हुन्छन् र सवै सन्तुष्ट हुन्छन भन्ने हुदैन‚ तर न्यायोचित हुनुपर्ने हुन्छ । आधुनिक लोकतन्त्रको महत्वपूर्ण कडी उत्तम तथा स्वतन्त्र न्यायपालिका नै हो । न्यायपालिका जति उत्तम हुदै गयो त्यति नै देशको अर्थतन्त्रले फडको मार्दछ । अर्थतन्त्र र न्यायपालिकाको सम्बन्ध प्रत्यक्ष नदेखिएता पनि अप्रत्यक्ष रुपमा देशको अर्थतन्त्र परिवर्तनमा न्यायपालिकाको ठूलो महत्व रहेको देखिन्छ । अर्थतन्त्र र न्यायपालिका एक आपसका महत्वपूर्ण साझेदार हुन भनी अर्थविदहरुको भनाई हाम्रो देशमा पनि अपरिहार्य रहेको छ ।
- वित्तिय अनुसाशन
देशको अर्थव्यवस्थामा सुधारका लागी वित्तिय अनुशासन आवश्यक रहन्छ । वित्तिय अनुसाशन अन्तर्गत विदेशी लगानी‚ स्वदेशी रकम विदेश पठाउनु (कानूनी/ गरैकानूनी) बैंकहरुले अनुशासित ऋण दिनु । वित्तिय संस्थाहरुमा व्यक्तिगत प्रभाव‚ राजनीतिक प्रभाव पर्नु । आवश्कता र अनुमानित भन्दा वढी आम्दानी वा ऋण प्रभाव भएको देखाउनु जस्ता वित्तिय अनुसाशन पालना नगर्नाले देश विकास हुदैन । देशको अर्थव्यवस्थामा सकारात्मक परिवर्तन ल्याउन सरकारको नीती नियम पूर्ण पालना संगसगै वित्तिय संघ स्थाहरुले अनुशासनहीन काम गर्न रोकिनु पर्ने हुन्छ ।
- सहज व्यापारको वातावरण
सरकारको जस्तो राम्रो निर्देश भएतापनि वास्तविकतामा हेर्दा नेपालमा व्यापार संचालन गर्न अझै पनि धेरै गाह्रो छ । कहिले राजनीतीक परिवर्तन कहिले द्वन्द्व रहेको यो देशमा थुप्रै कर नीतिहरु र कर दरहरु परिवर्तनशील छन् । प्रत्येक वर्ष जस्तो कर परिवर्तन भइरहने ‚ प्रत्येक वर्ष जस्तै नीती परिर्वतन भइरहने भएकाले नेपालमा व्यापार गर्न सजिलो छैन । कर्मचारीहरु तथा व्यापारीहरुले नीती तथा कर परिर्वतनका कारणले सजिलै काम गर्न नपाउनु तथा आन्तरिक राजनीति तथा अन्य सामाजिक कारणले सहज व्यापार गर्न नपाउनाले देशको अर्थव्यवस्थामा सकारात्मक असर नपरेको देखिन्छ ।
- कृषि कार्यमा जोड
आधा जनसंख्या भन्दा वढी जनसंख्या नेपालमा कृषक भनि चिनिन्छन । ५७ प्रतिशतले पेशा कृषि नै भन्छन् । तर खाद्यन्न सामाग्री अन्य मुलुकबाट ल्याउनु पर्ने बाध्यता छ । नेपालको बजेटले तथा उक्त बजेट राशीले नेपालको मुल मुद्धा सम्बोधन गर्दैन । नेपालमा खेती जीविकोपार्जन गर्नका लागि एक उत्तम तरीका लाग्दैन । कृषि क्षेत्रमा जवसम्म सुधार आउदैन तव सम्म नेपाल देशको अर्थव्यवस्थामा सुधार हुदैन । हामी जीवन निर्वाह गर्नका लागि मात्र कृषि गर्ने तथा प्रविधि संगसगै आधुनिकिकरण साथै पूर्ण अकुशल कृषकले कृषि त गर्छ तर उत्पादन गर्न सक्दैन त्यसकारण कृषिमा परिर्वतन विना नेपालको अर्थव्यवस्थामा परिर्वतन आउदैन ।
- शिक्षा सुधार
संकटकालिन अर्थव्यवस्था रहेको वेला रोजगारी सिमित आर्थिक वृद्धिको कारण हो । तर राम्रो तथा दक्ष जनशक्तिका लागि शिक्षामा सुधार अपरिहार्य छ । हालको शिक्षा प्रणालिको अवस्थामा शिक्षाको डिग्री देखाउनका लागि भएपनि काम गर्नका लागि छैन । जव सम्म विकसित राष्ट्रहरुसंग लड्ने जनशक्ति उत्पादन गर्ने शिक्षा प्रणाली हामी संग हुदैन तव सम्म हामी अर्थव्यवस्थामा सुधार गर्न सक्दैनौ । त्यसकारण शिक्षामा सुधार गरिएको अवस्थामा मात्र देशको अर्थव्यवस्थामा परिर्वतन हुने हुनाले सुधार अपरिहार्य छ ।
माथि उल्लेखित बुद्धाहरुले मात्रै अर्थव्यवस्थामा पूर्ण परिर्वतन आउने चाहीँ होइन‚ तर अर्थव्यवस्था परिर्वतनका लागि उल्लेखित सम्पूर्ण आधारहरुको पुर्ण कार्यान्वयन जरुरी हुन्छ । नेपाल जस्तो अल्पविकसित देशका लागि माथि उल्लेखित आधारहरुमा परिवर्तन गर्न सकेमा १/२ दशकमै देशको अर्थव्यवस्थाले ठुलो फड्को मार्ने कुरामा पूर्ण विश्वस्त रहन सकिन्छ ।
भारतमा नक्कली रामग्राम स्तूपको प्रचार
पृष्ठभूमीः
भारतले लुम्बिनी भारतमा रहेको प्रचार प्रसार गर्दैआएको सर्न्दभलाई लिएर नेपालमा पटक-पटक आवाज उठनुका साथै भारतको विरोध समेत हुनेगरेकोमा पछिल्लो समय भारत उत्तर प्रदेश को महाराजगञ्ज जिल्लाको जिल्ला प्रशासन कार्यालयको आधिकारिक वेभसाइटमा रामग्राम स्तूप सोही जिल्लाको सोहगीबरवा जंगलमा रहेको उल्लेख गर्नुका साथै हिन्दुस्तान पत्रिकाले महाराजगंज जिल्लाको बनर्सिहा कला देवदहमा गौतम बुद्धको अस्तु उत्खनन कार्य पुन: आगामी डिसेम्बरबाट सुरु हुने समाचार प्रकाशित भएसँगै नेपालका बौद्ध अनुयायी तथा नवलपरासी(पश्चिम)का स्थानीयहरुले उक्त भारतीय प्रचारप्रसारको विरोध गर्दै सरकारले कुटनीतिक पहलबाट त्यस्ता भ्रमपूर्ण कार्य रोक्नुपर्ने जनाएका छन् ।
विभिन्न धार्मिक लेख, आत्मवृतान्त तथा पुरातत्वविदका अनुसार गौतम बुद्धको अस्तु धातु रहेको स्थल हालको नवलपरासी(पश्चिम)को रामग्राम नगरपालिका-७ स्थित उजैनी भएतापनि भारतीय पक्षले गलत प्रचार गर्दै विहारको महाराजगंज जिल्लामा उत्खनन कार्य अगाडि बढाई रहेकोले रामग्राम स्तूप संरक्षण तथा पर्यटन विकास संस्था नवलपरासीस्थित नागरिक समाज, लुम्बिनी विकास कोष, समाजसेवी लगायत स्थानीयहरुले पत्रकार सम्मेलन, ज्ञापनपत्र प्रस्तुत तथा छलफललाई जारी राखेका छन् ।
रामग्राम स्तूपको वास्तविकता र महत्व:
लुम्बिनीमा जन्मेका बुद्धको जीवन नेपाल र भारतका विभिन्न गाउँ शहरहरुमा धर्म प्रचार गरेर बित्यो । उनको परिनिर्वाण हाल भारतको कुशीनगरमा भएको थियो । बौद्ध ग्रन्थहरुको अनुसार उनको महापरिनिर्वाण भएपछि शवको दाह संस्कारपश्चात केही मोतीका दानाजस्ता अस्तुधातु बाँकी भए । दाहसंस्कारमा उपस्थित त्यसबेलाका सबै बौद्ध राज्यहरु ती अस्तु धातुका दानाहरु आफ्नो देशमा लान पाउनुपर्ने मागसहित युद्ध नै गर्न तम्सिए र पछि उनीहरुले एक जना द्रोण नाम गरेका पण्डितको सहायताले त्यसलाई आठ भागमा विभाजन गरेर लिएको इतिहास छ । त्यसलाई तत्कालीन मगध, बैशाली, कपिलवस्तु, अलकप्प, कोलीयग्राम, वट्ठदिप, पावा र कुशिनगरका राजाहरुले लगे । उनीहरुले भगवान बुद्धप्रतिको श्रद्धाअनुरुप आआफ्नो स्थानमा ती अस्तु धातु लगेर विशाल स्तुप बनाएर बुद्धधर्मलाई निरन्तरता दिए । त्यसमध्ये कोलियग्रामका राजाले त्यस अस्तु धातुलाई राखेर बनाएको स्तुप नै रामग्राम स्तुप हो । पछि इशापूर्व २६८ देखि २३२ सम्म शासन गरेका मौर्य सम्राट अशोकले बुद्धधर्मको महत्व बुझी यसलाई सबै देशहरुमा प्रचार गर्ने भनेर ती सबै स्तूपबाट अस्तुधातु निकाली त्यसबाट ८४ हजार स्तुप बनाउन लगाई सम्पूर्ण भारत वर्षमा स्थापना गर्ने योजना बनाए । बौद्ध ग्रन्थहरुमा उल्लेख भएअनुसार सम्राट अशोकका दुतहरुले रामग्राममा अस्तु निकाल्न आउँदा त्यहाँका नागहरुले रक्षा गरेको कारण अस्तु सुरक्षित रहयो ।
इशाको पाँचौं शताब्दीमा फाहियान र सातौं शताब्दीमा हुयेनसाङ जस्ता यात्रीहरुले यस तीर्थस्थलको भ्रमण गरेको ऐतिहासिक दृष्टान्त पाइन्छन् । उनिहरुको यात्रा वृत्तान्तमा कोलीय गणराज्यको राजधानी देवदह, रामग्रामदेखि पूर्व र दक्षिण दिशामा ८ माईलको दुरीमा रहेको भगवान् गौतम बुद्धको अस्तुधातु रहेको स्थल नै रामग्राम स्तूप रहेको उल्लेख छ । सन् १८९९ मा एसियाटिक सोसाइटी अफ बेङ्गालका इतिहासकार डा. डब्लु होयेले रामग्राम स्तूप पत्ता लगाएका थिए । पछि सन् १९६४ मा यो नै रामग्राम स्तुप हो भन्ने प्रमाणित भयो । यहाँ जमिनको सतहमा सन् १९९७ तथा १९९९ मा भौतिक सर्भेक्षण गरिएको थियो । यसबाट स्तुपको पूर्व र उत्तरमा चतुष्कोणीय विहारहरुको अवशेष भएको निक्र्यौल गरिएको थियो । पछि पुरातत्व विभागका शुक्रसागर श्रेष्ठले सन् १९९९ तथा २००४ को बिचमा उत्खनन् पनि गरे । त्यसबाट यस क्षेत्र मौर्यकाल अर्थात् ईशा पूर्व ३२२ देखि १८५ को बिचमा तथा गुप्तकाल अर्थात् ईशाको ३२० देखि ईशाको ५५० को वरिपरी विकसित भएको निष्कर्ष निकालिएको थियो । हाल स्तूपको रुपमा करिब १० फिट अग्लो तथा २३.५ मिटर ब्यास भएको घाँसले ढाकिएको एउटा ढिस्को मात्र देखिन्छ ।
स्तुपको वर्तमान अवस्था:
जिल्लाको सदरमुकाम परासीदेखि दक्षिण महेशपुर सडकको तीन किमी टाढा उजैनी गाउँबाट पूर्वतर्फ झरही खोलाको किनारमा समतल मैदानमा देखिने घाँसे थुम्को नै रामग्राम स्तूप हो । वरिपरी घुम्नलाई काठको फलेकको र्याम्प बनाइएको छ भने पूजा पाठ गर्ने एउटा ठाउँ पनि बनाइएको छ । यसबाहेक प्रवेशद्वारको दुबै तिर मेचहरु सहितको सानो बगैंचाहरु बनाइएको छ । दुई जना सुरक्षा गार्डले यस पुरातात्विक क्षेत्रमा सुरक्षा प्रदान गर्दै आएको छन् । रामग्राम स्तुप, विश्वकै एक मात्र भगवान बुद्धको अस्तु धातु अविछिन्न रुपमा राखिएको पवित्र स्थल हो । विश्वभरका बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बीहरु यहाँ एकमात्र मौलिक रुपमा अस्तुधातु भएको पवित्र स्तूप भनेर पूजा आराधना गर्न आउने गरेका छन् । देश विदेशबाट तीर्थयात्रीहरु यहाँ आएर सामुहिक रुपमा बुद्धपूजा तथा परित्राण पाठ गर्ने गरेका छन । रामग्राम स्तूपको संरक्षण र विकासमा ध्यान दिन स्थानीयले सरकारसँग माग गर्दै आएका छन ।
चरणबद्ध रुपमा भएका गतिविधिहरु :
- कार्तिक १० गतेः
नागरिक समाज, नवलपरासी(पश्चिम) का अध्यक्ष राधेश्याम सिंह सैथवार सहित ४/५ जनाले जिल्ला प्रशासन कार्यालयमा उपस्थित भई भारतले नक्कली रामग्राम स्तूप खडा गरी भारतीय भूमिमा रहेको भनी प्रचारप्रसार गरिरहेको प्रति घोर आपत्ति जनाउँदै यस विषयमा नेपाल सरकारले कूटनीतिक माध्यमबाट समस्या निराकरण गर्नु पर्ने माग राखी प्रमुख जिल्ला अधिकारी विश्वप्रकाश अर्यालमार्फत सम्माननीय प्रधानमन्त्री, नेपाल सरकार, संस्कृति, पर्यटन तथा नागरिक उड्डयन मन्त्रालय एवं लुम्बिनी बिकास कोषका अध्यक्ष र माननीय मुख्यमन्त्री समक्ष ध्यानाकर्ण पत्र बुझाएको थियो ।
- कार्तिक १२ गतेः
रामग्राम स्तूपबारे भारतले गरिरहेको गलत प्रचार रोक्न माग गर्दै रामग्राम स्तुप संरक्षण तथा पर्यटन बिकास संस्थाले नवलपरासी(पश्चिम) को रामग्राम नगरपालिका-७ उजैनी स्थित रामग्राम स्तुपमा पत्रकार सम्मेलन गरेको थियो ।
- कार्तिक १३ गतेः
जिल्लास्थित जिल्ला समन्वय समितिमा समितिका प्रमुख भगौती यादव (रुदल) को अग्रसरतामा लुम्बिनी बिकास कोषका कोषाध्यक्ष ढुण्डीराज भट्टराई, प्रमुख जिल्ला अधिकारी विश्व प्रकाश अर्याल, नागरिक समाज नवलपरासी (पश्चिम) का अध्यक्ष राधेश्याम सिंह सैथवार, समाजसेवी लगायत सरोकार निकायहरुबीच छलफल भएको ।
- कार्तिक १६ गतेः
रामग्राम स्तूपमा कार्तिक १५ गतेदेखि उत्खननका लागि भू-भौतिक सर्वेक्षण (जियोफिजिक्स सर्भे) काम सुरु भएको । बुद्धको अस्तुधातु रहेको प्राचिन रामग्राम स्तुपको करिव २० वर्षपछि फ्रान्सको ओरेन्टल कल्चरल हेरिटेज साइट प्रोटेक्सन एलाइन्सको आर्थिक सहयोगमा दोस्रो पटक उत्खननको काम भईरहेको । नेपाल सरकार पुरातत्व विभाग, लुम्बिनी बिकास कोष र बेलायतको दुरह्याम विश्वविद्यालय एवं राष्ट्रिय तथा अन्तराष्ट्रिय बिज्ञहरुको संलग्नतामा स्तूपको उत्तर पश्चिममा रहेको खुल्ला चौरमा उक्त उत्खनन कार्य सुरु भएको र आगामी नोभेम्बर २८ सम्म जारी रहने बुझिएको ।
सन् २०१८ र २०१९ मा गरिएको जियोफिजिक्स सर्भेका क्रममा स्तूपको उत्तर पश्चिमतर्फको खाली जमिनमा ठूलो क्षेत्रफलमा फैलिएको बिहार, पोखरी लगायत बुद्धकालीन सामाग्रीहरु रहेकोमा सोको वास्तविक अवस्था पत्ता लगाउन उत्खनन कार्य सुरु गरिएको । लुम्बिनी उत्खननमा संलग्न दुरहाम विश्व विद्यालयका प्रोफेसर डा. रविन कनिङघमको नेतृत्वमा पुरातत्व विभागका पुरातत्वविद भाष्कर ज्ञवाली, लुम्बिनी बिकास कोषका पुरातत्वविद हिमाल उप्रेती लगायत करिव १० जनाको टोली उक्त उत्खननमा संलग्न रहने बुझिएको ।
निश्कर्ष:
- लामो समयदेखी सरकारको प्राथमिकतामा नपर्दा रामग्राम स्तूप ओझेलमा पर्दै आएको अवस्थामा भारतीय पक्षले बुद्धको अस्तु धातु अविछिन्न रुपमा राखिएको पवित्र स्थल आफ्नो भूमिमा रहेको दाबी गरि प्रचार प्रसार गर्नु चिन्ताको विषय रहेको,
- विश्व सम्पदा सूचिमा सूचीकृत प्रक्रियामा रहेको प्राचीन रामग्राम स्तुपको विकास, संरक्षण र प्रचारप्रसारमा ध्यान नपुग्दा स्तुपको महत्व ओझेलमा परेको,
- भारतसँग सम्बन्धीत जिल्ला तथा मन्त्रालय तहबाट कूटनीतिक पहल गरी अनावश्यक प्रचार नगर्न अनुरोध गर्नुपर्ने,
- भारतले आफ्नो मुलुकमा गरिरहेको उत्खनन र प्रचार प्रसारको जानकारी/सूचना संकलन गरी वास्तविकताको आधारमा आवश्यक कूटनीतिक पहल गर्न तथा रामग्राम स्तूपको प्रसारमा जोड दिनुपर्ने ।
Equilibrium of industry and firm in the long period
Equilibrium of industry and firm in the long period
In the long run, time is long enough to adjust the supply with the changing demand. Firms can expand or contract their size and new ones can also sprung up. In the long run, the firm may vary its output not only by varying the rate of use of its existing plant but also by simultaneously varying the size of the paint for the purpose.
According to Prof Watson, “When the firms in a purely competitive industry earn zero net profit, the number of firms is in equilibrium,(no entry of firms and no withdrawal of firm) therefore, the output of the industry is in equilibrium there being no force causing the output of the industry either to expand or to contract.”
A firm is in the long period equilibrium when it is neither making abnormal profits nor is suffering losses. The equilibrium of the firm will be attained when the marginal cost equates marginal revenue, average cost and average revenue, i.e. MC = MR = AR = Price.
Fig. Explains the equilibrium of the firm that is attained at point R where the long run marginal cost equates the marginal revenue. It is significant to note that at the equilibrium point the AC is also equal to AR. This will mean that the firm will neither make abnormal profits nor suffer losses.
The aforementioned discussion makes it clear that the concept of perfect competition may be hypothetical, but to understand the fundamental theory of price determination its study is indispensable.
Criticisms of Marginal Productivity theory of wages
Criticism
Economists Samuelson, Keynes, Barbara, Wootton have severely criticized the marginal productivity theory on several grounds. They are
(1) Unrealistic Assumptions.
Marginal productivity theory is based on such assumption of stationary state, perfect competition homogeneous labor, constant technology, which, in fact, is impossible to exist in the real world. For an example, in real world, imperfect market instead of perfect competitive market is existed. Laborers are not homogenous. The world is not satire but dynamic.
(2) Difficult in the measurement of marginal product.
The different factors are jointly used on the production process. If a single factor is separated from such production except others, the marginal productivity except others, the marginal productivity of such segregated factor will be impossible to trace out in a large-scale organization. Hence, if marginal productivity of a factor can’t be estimated, how the price of such factor can be fixed it is a major question. But some economists are of the opinion that marginal productivity of one factor (keeping other constant) is possible to find out.
(3) Wage rate also determines productivity
According to this theory, wages are paid on the basis of marginal productivity of a worker but it is not always realistic. Productivity is also a function of wages. Higher wage level may improve the standard living of laborer and increases his efficiency or productivity and low level of wage rate of worker can’t improve his standard of living and he will not perform well so productivity will be lowered. Hence, it is said that wage rate determines the productivity of labor.
(4) Ignored power structure, social tradition the marginal productivity
Theory has; ignored the power structure, social tradition social status and prestige of a group of workers, in the determination of wage of various groups of classes of labor force. Due to the above factors, the wage of some staffs in any company is determined not according to their marginal productivity. The top executives in such company generally are getting their salaries more than their marginal productivity. According to pen, the marginal productivity theory does not explain wage determination between men and woman, between races and between social classes. This theory has also ignored the role of labor unions to influence the wage rate determination in the market.
(5) Unable to explain the determination of factor prices under conditions of imperfect competition.
Marginal productivity theory is based on the assumption of perfect competition. It prevails in both product and factor markets respectively. When there prevails imperfect competition in the product market (assuming perfect competition in the factor market) factor of production would not get wage equal to the value of the marginal product as in the marginal productivity theory. Under such imperfect market a factor production is paid according to a different principle namely, marginal, revenue product (MRP) which is less than the value of the marginal product (VMP). According to Joan Robinson, a factor is exploited it is paid less than value of its marginal product, whereas in marginal productivity theory. Factor is paid according to its contribution in the total production or marginal productivity.
(6) No explanation of remuneration of entrepreneur
Another important criticism of marginal productivity theory is that it doesn’t explain the profits which an entrepreneur can each. Because to find the marginal productivity of such an entrepreneur, he can be ant in the production process but he can’t be varied since the entrepreneur in a firm is only one and a fixed factor. Therefore marginal productivity of entrepreneur from the view point of a less if the single entrepreneur is with drawn from the firm, keeping all other factors constant, the whole production process of the firm will collapse contrary to it, if new entrepreneur is added in a firm that will mean the establishment of a new firm.
(7) Supply of a factor is not always fixed.
According to the Calrkian version of marginal productivity theory demand side is much advocated for the wage rate determination and thus Clark’s version does not ignore the supply side but grants it perfectly in elastic at the level of full-employment, in the long run. Here, clark’s view of full employment itself is far reaching phenomenon in real world.
(8) Long term explanation:
According to the marginal productivity theory. In the long run period, wage rate tends to be equal to the marginal product of labor employed in economy. But critic are of the opinion that long term result can’t be important than the short term are for human beings because as Keynes argues, we are all dead in the long run.”
Utility Analysis cardinal and Ordinal Utility Microeconomics
Utility Analyses
The theory of demand seems to establish relationship between quantity demanded of a commodity and its price. Why does a consumer demand a particular good? There are three approaches in the theory of demand to give an answer for this question. These are; (i) The cardinal utility approach; (ii) Indifference curve approach, and (iii) The revealed preference approach.
Utility
It is defined as the power of a commodity or service to satisfy a human want It is a subject phenomenon varies from person to person. The utility depends on the mental made up of the consumer. It does not carry moral or legal significance. For example liquor is harmful for health yet it has utility for an alcoholic. Thus utility has no physical existence, the same commodity may have different degrees of utility for different persons, it cannot be equated with usefulness, and it carries no moral or legal significance.
Cardinal and Ordinal Utility
According to the concept of cardinal, utility can be measured and compared in terms of number of units. According to the concept of ordinal utility the utilities derived from the consumption of commodities cannot be measured and compared. It can simply state apple is more preferable to a mango or a mango is less preferable to a particular person. The theory of consumer’s behavior can be explained without the idea of measurable utility. The units of measurement are imaginary.
INTRODUCTION
All of us in our daily life, consume various goods and services within our given income constraint. Whenever we visit the market to purchase a particular item to match our requirement, we often get puzzle by the multiplicity of the goods, which are all they near to our requirement. This is the point where we make choices to obtain the maximum possible satisfaction by spending the minimum of our income. Though we may differ in our likes and dislikes, as consumer we are assumed to behave rationally and consistently. Our likes and dislikes are reflected through our preferences. We choose an item from our preferences that suits our budget. The theory of consumer behavior deals with reconciliation of our dreams with the budgets.
Significance of Demand Analysis
Demand is one of the crucial requirements for the functioning of any business enterprise, its survival and growth. Information on the size and type of demand helps the management in planning its requirements of men, materials, machines and money. For example, if the demand for a product is subject to temporary business recession, the firm may plan to pile up the stock of unsold products. If the demand for a product shows a trend towards a substantial and sustained increase in the long run, the firm may plan to install additional plant and equipment to meet the demand on a permanent basis. If the demand for a firm’s product is falling, while its rival sale is increasing, the firm needs to plan undertake some sales promotion activity like advertisement. If the firm’s supply of the products is unable to meet the existing demand, the firm may be required to revise the production plan and schedule; or the firm may have to review its purchase plan for inputs and the suppliers’ response to input requirement by the firm. In the same way, larger the demand for the firm’s product, the higher is the price the firm can charge. The common theme underlying these examples is that the whole range of planning cost budgeting, purchase plan, market research, pricing decision, advertisement budget and profit planning etc. call for an analysis of demand. In fact, demand analysis is one area of economics that has been used most extensively by business. The decision which management makes with respect to any functional area, always hangs on an analysis of demand.
Determinants of Keynes’ Psychological Law of Consumption Function
The factors which determine the level of consumption is called determinants of consumption. J.M. Keynes mentions two principal factors which influence the consumption function and determine its nature (slope) and position. They are: subjective factors, and objective factors.
- Subjective Features:
The subjective factors affecting propensity to consume consists of those psychological motives. Therefore, subjective factors are also known as psychological factors because these are internal factors that determine the consumption function. These factors are related to human behaviour and habits, social customs and traditions. There are different motives of consumers, which lead to determine the level of consumption.
(i) Demonstration motives:
If consumers are influenced by the consumption of other people and try to adopt similar consumption practices, such practices are known as demonstration effect. If the people of a country are affected by the demonstration effect, then the propensity to consume will be high and if not affected by the demonstration effect, then the propensity to consume will be low. Advertisement, fashion, luxurious life style, etc. are able to influence consumption pattern of the people.
(ii) Security motives:
The families and individuals in the modern industrialised societies are highly conscious with old age, sickness and other unforeseen contingencies related to economic insecurity. Hence, people try to save quite regularly. Such savings reduce the consumption function.
(iii) Business motives:
Business motive is one of the most important factors determining consumption function. Due to business motives the individuals and government cut down their current consumption. The business motive mainly influences the propensity to save of corporations and various business units. The uncertainty regarding the future, the quantity and quality of existing equipments, and other conditions give rise to motive for withholding a part of current earning which, in turn, reduces the consumption function.
(iv) Improvement and Development motive:
Improvement and development motives of the country and individuals also influence the pattern of consumption function. If the people would like to develop and improve their life and society, then they are ready to sacrifice a part of their present consumption. Therefore, improvement motive is one of effective factors to determine consumption function.
- Objective Factors:
Important objective factors which cause changes in the nature, shape and position of consumption are as follows:
(i) Income:
Income is the most important factor that determines a community’s propensity to consume. As its income rises or falls, consumption also rises and falls.
(ii) Distribution of income:
Another factor determining how much will be spent for consumption out of a given income of the community is the way in which income is distributed. There is great inequality in the distribution of income in the modern capitalist societies with the result that the rich find it easy to save. This widespread inequality of income lowers the overall propensity to consume as the rich have already fulfilled most of their basic wants. A more equal distribution of wealth will raise the propensity to consume.
(iii) Fiscal Policy:
The fiscal policy of government relating to taxation, expenditure and public debt have significant effects on the consumption function. The Government’s fiscal policy resulting in highly progressive tax system brings about more equitable distribution of income which increases propensity to consume. On the other hand, a regressing tax structure will reduce total consumption in the economy.
(iv) Windfall Gains or Losses:
Sudden and unexpected gains and losses in income affect consumption accordingly. If windfall gains increases unexpectedly, then consumption will also increases and if losses increases, then propensity to consume will decrease. In the late twenties, there were huge windfall gains on account of the boom conditions in the American economy and consumption function shifted upwards.
(v) Changes in the rate of interest:
Changes in the rate of interest may also alter the propensity to consume though the direction of change is not certain. If the rate of interest goes up, people will consume less and save more in order to gain from lending on the higher rate of interest. On the other hand, people may consume more and save less with a fall in the rate of interest. Further, a person who desires a fixed income in future is likely to save less at a higher rate of interest than at a lower rate of interest.
(vi) Financial policies of corporations:
The policies of joint stock companies and corporations with respect to dividend payments and investment also affect consumption in various ways. If corporations and companies keep more reserves and distribute less of their profits as dividends, it will lower the disposable income with consumers. On the other hand, if more income is distributed in the form of dividends more will be spend on consumption.
Measures to Raise the Propensity to Consume
In the short period due to psychological and institutional factors, it is very difficult to stimulate consumption function which possible in long-run measures to raise propensity to consume in long run are as follows:
- Income Redistribution:
Propensity to consume of poor people is higher than propensity to consume of rich people. Therefore, redistribution of income helps to raise propensity to consume if redistribution of income favours poor. Thus, propensity to consume can be raised transferring income from the rich to poor.
- Social security:
Various type of social security measures raise propensity to consume in long run. For example provision for unemployment compensation, old age allowance, widow allowance, etc., remove uncertainties in future. Therefore, tendency to save is reduced and people start to consume more.
(3) Wage policy:
Wage rates are considered measure to raise consumption in both short-run and long-run point of view. But in short run, labour productivity can’t be increased more will harm the labours more than benefit because increased wages will increase cost which may lead to unemployment. Thus in long-run, if wage rate and productivity of labour both are increased in same way then it will tend to raise level of consumption in economy.
(4) Easy credit facilities:
Consumption function shifts upward by the help of cheap and easy credit facilities.
(5) Advertisement and publicity:
In modern time, advertisement and publicity, propaganda and salesmanship are effective tools to attract consumers towards commodities because these make the consumers familiar with use of product. It raises consumption function of people.
(6) Development of infrastructures:
Development of infrastructures like transport, communication, hydropower, etc., helps to shift consumption function upward.
(7) Urbanization:
In urban areas people are highly influenced by the demonstration effect. This shifts the consumption function upward.
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